UT logo UT logo
eFossils
Lessons > Step by Step: The Evolution of Bipedalism
 

1 Huffard CL, Boneka F, Full RJ. 2005. Underwater Bipedal Locomotionby Octopuses in Disguise. Science 307:1927.

2 Miller KG, Kominz MA, Browning JV, Wright JD, Mountain GS, Katz ME, Sugarman PJ, Cramer BS, Christie-Blick N, and Pekar SF. 2005. The Phanerozoic Record in Global Sea-Level Change. Science 310:1293-1298

4 Bromage TG, Schrenk F. 1994. Biogeographic and climatic basis for a narrative of early hominid evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 28:109-114

5 DeMenocal PB. 1995. Plio-pleistocene African climate. Science 270:53-59.

6 Jomes S, Martin R, and Pilbeam D (Eds). 2005. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

7 Senut B. 2005. Bipedie et Climat. C.R. Palevol 5:89-98

8 Klein, RG. 1989. The Human Career Human: Biological and Cultural Origins.

9 Kappelman J. 2005 (Ed). Virtual Laboratories for Physical Anthropology. CD-ROM. Vers. 4.0.

10 Johnason DC and Edgar B. 2006. From Lucy to Language: Revised, Updated and Expanded. New York: Simon & Schuster

11 Johanson DC and Edey MA. 1981. Lucy: The beginnings of humankind. New York: Simon and Shuster.

12 Fleagle JG. 1999. Primate Adaptation and Evolution. 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press.

13 Sept J and Betti L, in Fleagle JG. 1999. Primate Adaptation and Evolution. 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press.

14 Sockol MD, Raichlen DA, Pontzer H. 2007. Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human bipedalism. PNAS 104(30):12265-12269.

15 Lovejoy CO. 2005. The natural history of human gait and posture. Part 1. Spine and Pelvis. Gait & Posture 21(1):95-112.

16 Lovejoy CO. 2005. The natural history of human gait and posture. Part 2. Hip and Thigh. Gait & Posture 21(1):113-124.

17 Corriccin RS and Mchenry HM. 1980. Hominid Femoral Neck Length. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 52:397-398.

18 Lovejoy CO. 2007. The natural history of human gait and posture. Part 3. The Knee. Gait & Posture 25(3):325-341.

19 Duncan AS, Kappelman J, Shapiro LJ. 1994. Metatarsophalaneal Join Function and Positional Behavior in Australopithecus afarensis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 93(1):67-81

20 Leakey MD. 1979. 3.6 million years old: footprints in the ashes of time [Laetoli]. National Geographic Magazine. 155(4):446-457.

21 Johanson DC and White TD. 1979. A Systematic assessment of early African hominids. Science 203(4379):321-330.

22 Schwartz JH and Tattersal I. 2005. The Human Fossil Record: Craniodential Morphology of Early Hominids (Genera Australopithecus, Paranthropus, Orrorin), and Overview. Vol 4.

23 Stern JT. 2000. Climbing to the top: A personal memoir of Australopithecus afarensis. Evolutionary Anthropology 9(3):113-133.

24 Nakatsukasa M, Pickford M, Egi N, and Senut B. 2007. Femur length, body mass, and stature estimates of Orrorin tugenensis, a 6 Ma hominid from Kenya. Primates 48:171-178

25 Pickford M, Senut B, Gommery D, and Treil J. 2002. Bipedalism in Orrorin tugenensis revealed by its femora. C.R. Palevol (2002) 1:191-203

26 Richmond BG and Jungers WL. 2008. Orrorin tugenensis femoral morphology and the evolution of hominin bipedalism. Science 319: 1662-1665

27 Guy F, Lieberman DE, Pilbeam D, Ponce de Leon M, Likius A, Mackaye HT, Vignaud P, Zollikofer C, and Brunet M. 2005. Morphological affinities of the Sahelanthropus tchadensis (Late Miocene hominid from Chad) cranium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 102(52):18836-18841

28 Brunet M, Guy, F, Pilbeam D, Mackay HT, Likius A, Ahounta D, Beauvilains A, Blondel C, Bocherens H, Boisserie J, De Bonis, L, Coppens Y, Dejax J, Denys C, Duringer P, Eisenmann V, Fanone G, Fronty P, Geraads D, Lehmann T, Lihoreau F, Louchart A, Mahamat A, Merceron G, Mouchelin G, Otero O, Campomanes PP, de Leon MP, Rage J, Sapanet M, Schuster M, Sudre J, Tassy P, Valentin X, Vignaud P, Viriot L, Zazzo A, and Zollikofer C. 2002. A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa. Nature 418:145-151, 801

29 Wood B and Lonergan N. 2008. The hominin fossil record: taxa, grades and clades. J. Anat.212:354-376.

30 PBS: Evolution. 2001. Laetoli Footprints [Photograph] 6 Dec 2008
www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/humans/riddle/images/laetoli.jpg